In this study, we evaluate the feasibility of using quantum neural networks for classifying gravitational waveforms, using both simulators and quantum computers. The analysis is quite interdisciplinary in its nature, combining knowledge involving astrophysics, quantum information as well as quantum and classical machine learning. We showed that the quantum classifiers and hybrid classical-quantum layers give highly accurate results when tested on a simple dataset and ran on a simulator; also, adding a quantum layer to poorly performing classical neural network can highly improve its accuracy. When running on a real quantum computer, error minimizing algorithms need to be implemented in order to obtain a satisfying accuracy.

The present study aimed to assess the feasibility of developing low-cost multipurpose iron oxide/TiO2 nanocomposites (NCs) for use in combined antitumor therapies and water treatment applications. Larger size (approximate to 100 nm) iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) formed magnetic core-TiO2 shell structures at high Fe/Ti ratios and solid dispersions of IONPs embedded in TiO2 matrices when the Fe/Ti ratio was low. When the size of the iron phase was comparable to the size of the crystallized TiO2 nanoparticles (approximate to 10 nm), the obtained nanocomposites consisted of randomly mixed aggregates of TiO2 and IONPs. The best inductive heating and ROS photogeneration properties were shown by the NCs synthesized at 400 degrees C which contained the minimum amount of alpha-Fe2O3 and sufficiently crystallized anatase TiO2. Their cytocompatibility was assessed on cultured human and murine fibroblast cells and analyzed in relation to the adsorption of bovine serum albumin from the culture medium onto their surface. The tested nanocomposites showed excellent cytocompatibility to human fibroblast cells. The results also indicated that the environment (i.e. phosphate buffer or culture medium) used to disperse the nanomaterials prior to performing the viability tests can have a significant impact on their cytotoxicity.

The equimolar oxide mixture beta-Ga2O3-alpha-Fe2O3 was subjected to high-energy ball milling (HEBM) with the aim to obtain the nanoscaled GaFeO3 ortho-ferrite. X-ray diffraction, Fe-57 Mossbauer spectroscopy, and transmission electron microscopy were used to evidence the phase structure and evolution of the equimolar nano-system beta-Ga2O3-alpha-Fe2O3 under mechanochemical activation, either as-prepared or followed by subsequent calcination. The mechanical activation was performed for 2 h to 12 h in normal atmosphere. After 12 h of HEBM, only nanoscaled (similar to 20 nm) gallium-doped alpha-Fe2O3 was obtained. The GaFeO3 structure was obtained as single phase, merely after calcination at 950 degrees C for a couple of hours, of the sample being subjected to HEBM for 12 h. This temperature is 450 degrees C lower than used in the conventional solid phase reaction to obtain gallium orthoferrite. The optical and magnetic properties of representative nanoscaled samples, revealing their multifunctional character, were presented.

Neoplastic disease has multifactorial etiology and insidious evolution which make it unlikely to be detected in early stages and very difficult to treat at later times. The effectiveness of standard therapeutic approaches is limited by severe adverse effects, metastasis, and tumor capacity to develop multidrug resistance. The success of inorganic nanomaterial-based therapeutic agents depends on the degree to which these nanostructures satisfy general requirements for drug safety regarding biocompatibility, biodegradability, and stability and on their antitumor efficacy. Fabrication of such nanomedicines requires adequate assessment and engineering of nanomaterial physicochemical characteristics like particle size, specific surface area, surface charge, hydrodynamic size, and magnetic, optical, and photocatalytic properties. Together with surface functionalization and delivery method, these properties dictate the in vivo "biological identity" of the nanomaterial and its fate with respect to cellular uptake and distribution/accumulation inside the body. We reviewed recent literature on interdisciplinary studies regarding applications of inorganic nanomaterials in the treatment of cancer. The major functions that inorganic nanomaterials can play in cancer therapy are: 1. Nanocarriers for therapeutic agents and active targeting ligands for molecules overexpressed on tumor tissues as well as for altered signal transduction pathways. Inorganic nanomaterial-based therapeutic agents are able to reduce tumor growth acting on neoplastic vasculature (by inhibiting angiogenesis, vasculogenesis, and vasculogenic mimicry) or on malignant cells (blocking activation of overexpressed receptors and their specific signaling pathways, inducing oxidative stress, and reducing multidrug resistance). Moreover, inorganic nanomaterials are able to inhibit tumor invasiveness and metastasis by reducing degradation of extracellular matrix, exosome secretion, and cell proliferation at the secondary site. 2. Contrast agents and medical adhesives in cancer surgery: (i). Vital staining of sentinel lymph nodes (SLNs) where the first metastasis appears - the use of carbon nanoparticles, single-walled and multilayer carbon nanotubes, or superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles was associated with a significantly higher number of harvested SLNs in breast and cervical tumors, lung cancer, papillary thyroid carcinoma, and prostate carcinoma. (ii). Nanoparticle-based medical adhesives used for surgical wound closure aqueous suspensions of iron oxide and silicon dioxide nanoparticles were shown to rapidly connect highly vascularized tissues (e.g., liver). 3. Inorganic sensitizers for radiotherapy - gold nanoparticles were reported to significantly enhance the efficiency of ionizing radiation and induce targeted cancer cell apoptosis, tumor growth inhibition, and increases of survival rates in tumor-bearing mice. 4. Antitumor agents based on specific material properties like surface plasmon resonance (photothermal heating), magnetic responsiveness (magnetic hyperthermia), and photocatalysis (photodynamic therapy) - heat generated by plasmonic (gold-based) or magnetic (iron oxide-based) nanomaterials exposed to laser light or alternating magnetic fields, respectively, was shown to efficiently destroy tumors in mouse models or leads to promising results in clinical trials; the antitumor action of photoactivated TiO2-based nanomedicines was assessed in numerous in vitro and several in vivo studies. 5. Adjuvant therapy (iron replacement therapy) - iron oxide colloids (IOC) are more efficient than free iron in treating iron-deficient anemia associated with cancer. Overall, inorganic-organic therapeutic nanoplatforms provide enhanced treatment efficiency, reduced adverse effects, multiple antitumor action mechanisms, facile cell internalization, and diminished multidrug resistance.

The present study concerns the in vitro oxidative stress responses of non-malignant murine cells exposed to surfactant-tailored ZnO nanoparticles (NPs) with distinct morphologies and different levels of manganese doping. Two series of Mn-doped ZnO NPs were obtained by coprecipitation synthesis method, in the presence of either polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) or sodium hexametaphosphate (SHMTP). The samples were investigated by powder X-ray Diffraction, Transmission Electron Microscopy, Fourier-Transform Infrared and Electron Paramagnetic Resonance spectroscopic methods, and N-2 adsorption-desorption analysis. The observed surfactant-dependent effects concerned: i) particle size and morphology; ii) Mn-doping level; iii) specific surface area and porosity. The relationship between the surfactant dependent characteristics of the Mn-doped ZnO NPs and their in vitro toxicity was assessed by studying the cell viability, intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, and DNA fragmentation in NIH3T3 fibroblast cells. The results indicated a positive correlation between the specific surface area and the magnitude of the induced toxicological effects and suggested that Mn-doping exerted a protective effect on cells by diminishing the pro-oxidative action associated with the increase in the specific BET area. The obtained results support the possibility to modulate the in vitro toxicity of ZnO nanomaterials by surfactant-controlled Mn-doping.

In this study, we compared the structural, morphological, and optical properties of a series of Zn1-xFexO (x = 0.00, 0.01, and 0.03) powders synthesized via a hydrothermal route with and without cetyltrimethylammonium bromide as a cationic surfactant. Our results highlighted the critical effects of the surfactant and the iron concentration on the structure, morphology, and optical properties of ZnO. X-ray diffraction, Mossbauer spectroscopy, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy analyses indicated the presence of a single phase comprising ZnO with a hexagonal wurtzite structure in all samples and a single oxidation state (+3) for the iron (Fe3+) that replaced Zn2+ in the ZnO structure. Morphological investigations by scanning electron microscopy showed that the surfactant and Fe3+ dopant greatly affected the shape of the ZnO grains, which varied between sheets and rod-like flowers. We found that the morphological and photocatalytic properties of the two series of samples comprising iron-doped ZnO with and without the surfactant were in opposition. We propose a possible growth mechanism for the ZnO polycrystalline grains in the presence of the Fe dopant and/or surfactant. The photocatalytic properties increased for the samples prepared with surfactant as the iron content increased, which was confirmed by ultraviolet-visible reflection measurements. The photocatalytic activities of the samples prepared without surfactant decreased in both the ultraviolet and visible spectral regions as the iron content increased in the samples.

Low carbon Fe-C steel surface has been studied before and after electrolytic galvanization. The corrosion products formed under atmospheric conditions on the Fe-C steel were identified and characterised by X-ray diffraction (XRD), transmission Mossbauer spectroscopy, conversion electron Mossbauer spectroscopy (CEMS), and conversion X-ray Mossbauer spectroscopy (CXMS). In decreasing order of abundance the found corrosion phases were magnetite, hematite, and goethite. After the surface preparation, an electrolytic galvanization process was applied. A magnetic anisotropy was evidenced after preparation, in the superficial layer of around 250 nm thickness. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analyses evidenced the formation of a uniform thin Zn film of 8 mu m at the surface of steel. No other Fe-Zn phases were identified at the steel-Zn interface.

Graphene is widely used in nanotechnologies to amplify the photocatalytic activity of TiO2, but the development of TiO2/graphene composites imposes the assessment of their risk to human and environmental health. Therefore, reduced graphene oxide was decorated with two types of TiO2 particles co-doped with 1% iron and nitrogen, one of them being obtained by a simultaneous precipitation of Ti3+ and Fe3+ ions to achieve their uniform distribution, and the other one after a sequential precipitation of these two cations for a higher concentration of iron on the surface. Physico-chemical characterization, photocatalytic efficiency evaluation, antimicrobial analysis and biocompatibility assessment were performed for these TiO2-based composites. The best photocatalytic efficiency was found for the sample with iron atoms localized at the sample surface. A very good anti-inhibitory activity was obtained for both samples against biofilms of Gram-positive and Gram-negative strains. Exposure of human skin and lung fibroblasts to photocatalysts did not significantly affect cell viability, but analysis of oxidative stress showed increased levels of carbonyl groups and advanced oxidation protein products for both cell lines after 48 h of incubation. Our findings are of major importance by providing useful knowledge for future photocatalytic self-cleaning and biomedical applications of graphene-based materials.

Iron and nitrogen doped TiO2 nanoparticles were synthesized and investigated with the aim to obtain photocatalytic systems with enhanced visible light efficiency. In a first step, commercially available Degussa P25 was impregnated with iron (0.3, 0.5, and 1 at. %) and nitrogen under hydrothermal conditions. In the second step, Fe-N doped TiO2 was synthesized by a hydrothermal route starting with TiCl3, FeCl3 center dot 6H(2)O and Urea, at 200 degrees C for 2 h. All samples were post annealed at 400 degrees C for 2h. The X-ray diffraction (XRD) revealed a two phase nanoscaled composition (Anatase and Rutile) of Degussa P25 and a single phase-nanoscaled Anatase content of the hydrothermally synthesized (1at.%) Fe-N doped TiO2 sample. The presence of Fe and nitrogen in samples was confirmed by Mossbauer and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy measurements (XPS). Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) revealed the structure, particle dimension and morphology. The photocatalytic measurements (based on degradation of Methylene Blue) evidenced the most efficient composition in TiO2 Degussa P25 series as corresponding to 1 at.% Fe, in both UV and visible spectrum. At the same time, the hydrothermal synthesized sample (1at.%) Fe-N doped TiO2 exhibits the best activity in visible spectral region. The nanoscaled systems were synthesized in view of tests on textile materials.

This chapter gives an overview of the new micro- and nano-technologies designed to monitor SC differentiation in the context of their potential applications in disease modeling, tissue engineering, regenerative medicine, as well as drug screening and toxicology. Representative examples of such applications are presented and the crucial importance of the differentiation processes for the safety of SC therapies is discussed. The roles of the main factors that influence SC differentiation are briefly summarized and the vital need to control and monitor the differentiation process using non-invasive methods is emphasized. The basic principles of new micro- and nano-technologies for monitoring SC differentiation are presented, with special focus on the use of acoustic vibrational fields to characterize SC. Literature studies on SC differentiation, involving methods based on Impedance Sensing (IS), Surface Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy ( SERS), Fourier Transformed Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, Microelectrode Array (MEA) sensors, Light-addressable Potentiometric Sensors (LAPS), Field-effect Transistors ( FET), Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) and Quartz Crystal Microbalance (QCM), are briefly described.

Hypothesis: The MU [3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium-bromide] cell cytotoxicity indicator is photocatalytically reduced on the surface of TiO2 nanoparticles in phosphate-buffered-saline (PBS) environment. We hypothesize that specific phosphate adsorption may be used to modulate the efficiency of the TiO2 MU reaction through colloidal and semiconductor-liquid interface processes. Experiments: The TiO2 MU reaction kinetics was studied in PBS, with respect to photocatalyst and MIT concentrations and irradiation wavelength. The effects of PBS and electron scavengers (Fe3+ ions) on reaction efficiency and the role of colloidal surface charge in the photocatalytic process were investigated. The structural and spectroscopic characteristics of relevant TiO2-formazan systems were studied by X-ray diffraction, transmission electron microscopy and IR-spectroscopy. Findings: The reaction was pseudo-first order with respect to photocatalyst and showed a negative and fractional partial order with respect to MU. Formazan production rates were directly proportional to radiation wavelength and TiO2 concentration and inversely proportional to the MIT initial concentration. The addition of Fe3+ ions, as well as the absence of PBS, induced strong reaction inhibition. Reaction efficiency and catalyst Zeta potential were enhanced by Na2HPO4 (PBS component) and showed a maximum around the phosphate concentration 0.005 M. Findings: Structural/spectroscopic characterization confirmed the formation of amorphous MU-formazan on the surface of TiO2 and the TiO2-phosphate binding. (C) 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

With the aim of synthesizing the mixed nanoparticle system xIn(2)O(3)-(1-x)SnO2 over all molar concentration range 0 <= x <= 1, Delta x = 0.1, we performed hydrothermal supercritical experiments on indium-tin hydrogel resulted from InCl3-SnCl4 water solution. Nanophases isostructural with InOOH and SnO2 were obtained by hydrothermal reaction at 400 degrees C, in the molar concentration range of 0.1 <= x <= 0.7; at x = 0.8 and x = 0.9 only one phase, isostructural with InOOH, was observed. Samples calcined at 500 degrees C with x in the range of 0.2 <= x <= 0.7 contain a nanoscaled phase isostructural with rhombohedral In2O3 and a second one isostructural with tetrahedral SnO2. At x = 0.8 and x = 0.9 only one phase isostructural with rhombohedral In2O3 appears: rhombohedral ITO phase. The determined band gap energies could recommend the rhombohedral ITO structure for visible light photocatalytic applications. The phase dynamics together with the concentration range for existence of the solid solutions in the InOOH-SnO2 and In2O3-SnO2 composite semiconducting nanoparticle systems have been evidenced and discussed. (C) 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Si/SiO2 quantum dots (QDs) are novel particles with unique physicochemical properties that promote them as potential candidates for biomedical applications. Although their interaction with human cells has been poorly investigated, oxidative stress appears to be the main factor involved in the cytotoxicity of these nanoparticles. In this study, we show for the first time the influence of Si/SiO2 QDs on cellular redox homeostasis and glutathione distribution in human lung fibroblasts. The nanoparticles morphology, composition and structure have been investigated using high resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM), selected area electron diffraction (SAED), energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis. MRC-5 cells (human lung fibroblasts) were incubated with various concentrations of Si/SiO2 QDs ranging between 25 and 200 mu g/mL for up to 72 h. The results of the MTT and sulforhodamine B assays showed that exposure to QDs led to a time-dependent decrease in cell viability and biomass. The increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS) and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels together with the lower glutathione content suggested that the cellular redox homeostasis was altered. Regarding GSH distribution, the first two days of treatment resulted in a localization of GSH mainly in the cytoplasm, while at longer incubation time the nuclear/cytoplasmic ratio indicated a nuclear localization. These modifications of cell redox state also affected the redox status of proteins, which was demonstrated by the accumulation of oxidized proteins and actin S-glutathionylation. In addition, the externalization of phosphatidylserine provided evidence that apoptosis might be responsible for cell death, but necrosis was also revealed. Our results suggest that Si/SiO2 quantum dots exerted cytotoxicity on MRC-5 cells by disturbing cellular homeostasis which had an effect upon protein redox status. (C) 2014 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

We report results regarding the in vitro toxicology of gamma-Bi2O3 represented by its isomorphous phase Bi12TiO20 (gamma-BTO). The gamma-BTO microparticles were synthesized by two methods: coprecipitation from a bismuth nitrate tetrabutyl titanate solution and solid state reaction of Bi2O3 and TiO2 oxides. The structural and morphological characteristics of the obtained materials were determined using X-ray diffraction (XRD), selected area electron diffraction (SAED), transmission (TEM) and scanning (SEM) electron microscopy. The elemental composition was investigated using energy dispersive spectrometry (EDS). The cytotoxicity and oxidative/nitrosative stress (intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) and nitric oxide (NO) release) induced by the studied microparticles in HepG2, SH-SY5Y and 3T3-L1 cell cultures were determined using the MIT, DCF-DA (2 ',7 '-dichlorfluorescein-diacetate) and Griess methods respectively. Depending on the cell type and gamma-BTO concentration, results showed only weak cytotoxic effects after 24 h of gamma-BTO exposure and cell proliferation effects for longer treatment times. Only reduced NO release increases (corresponding to high gamma-BTO concentrations) were detected in case of SH-SY5Y and 3T3-L1 cells. The intracellular ROS production (higher for HepG2 cells) appeared inversely proportional to the gamma-BTO concentration. The obtained results indicated a promising in vitro biocompatibility of gamma-BTO and encourage further studies regarding its potential for biomedical applications. (C) 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

We report results of noncellular tests, revealing the occurrence of photocatalytic interactions between titanium dioxide (TiO2, titania) nanoparticles and the MTT [3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl-tetrazolium-bromide] cytotoxicity indicator. These interactions induce the reduction of MTT and formation of purple formazan under biologically relevant conditions. Classical MU assays have been performed to evaluate the production of formazan in DMEM-F12 and RPMI-1640 cell culture media (containing 10% fetal bovine serum-FBS) treated with Degussa-P25 TiO2 nanoparticles, in the absence of cells. The colorimetric determinations revealed the noncellular MU to formazan transformation induced by TiO2 nanoparticles, under conditions commonly used for in vitro cytotoxicity testing of nanomaterials. The formazan precipitation was found to be proportional to the TiO2 concentration, being enhanced under laboratory daylight exposure. The photocatalytic nature of the studied effect was assessed under UV irradiation at 365 nm. The biological significance of the reported reaction was established with respect to cellular reference experiments performed on V79-4, HeLa and B16 cell lines. The results show false viability increases with up to 14% (for TiO2 concentrations generally higher than 50 mu g/ml), induced by the TiO2-MTT reaction. This type of artifacts may lead to underestimated toxicity or false proliferation results. (C) 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

We investigated the influence of rare earth (RE) additions on the structural, dielectric, magnetic and magnetostrictive properties of cobalt ferrite bulk materials. Three lanthanide ions with different ionic radii and magnetic properties were used as dopants: Dy, Gd, La. The structural properties of the sintered samples were investigated using X-ray diffraction, Raman spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy. The room temperature hysteresis loops were obtained using a vibrating sample magnetometer. The frequency dependence of dielectric permittivity and tangent loss was investigated in the 20 Hz-20 kHz range. The variation of the magnetoelectric response with applied dc magnetic field was analyzed. The insertion of rare earth elements influenced the structural characteristics of the samples (density, cell edge, porosity) and the magnetic and electric properties. An increase in coercive field and a decrease in saturation magnetization and magnetostriction coefficient were observed. These results can be partially explained by the weaker nature of the RE3+-Fe3+ interaction compared to Fe3+-Fe3+ interaction and to the antiferromagnetic alignment of the REFeO3 second phase observed in the diffraction patterns after sintering process. (C) 2012 Elsevier BY. All rights reserved.

TiO2-Au aerogels containing different amounts of gold nanoparticles of different sizes (5 and 16 nm) were successfully synthesized using a sol-gel procedure, and were tested for salicylic acid photo-degradation under UV irradiation. The structure and morphology of the obtained materials were investigated using X-ray diffraction, transmission electron microscopy, and N-2 adsorption-desorption measurements. UV-Vis spectroscopy was used to study the optical properties. The effects of the gold nanoparticles on the TiO2 crystallization process were twofold, as follows: (i) the number of crystallized zones was strongly related to the concentration of the gold nanoparticles, and (ii) the smaller gold particles increased the time taken for the crystallization of the samples. It was found that the noble metal-doped samples exhibited higher degradation rates compared with bare titania. It was found that the most active photocatalyst in each studied system was the sample with the highest concentration of gold nanoparticles. Additionally, the highest degradation rate value was obtained with the smallest Au nanoparticles (46.4 x 10(-3) mu mol/(L.s). (C) 2013, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences. Published by Elsevier By. All rights reserved.

The Griess assay has been used to determine the possible changes in the measured NO2- concentrations induced by TiO2 nanoparticles in three types of nitrite-containing samples: aqueous NaNO2 solutions with known concentrations, and two types of cell culture media-Roswell Park Memorial Institute medium (RPMI-1640) and Dulbecco's Modified Eagle Medium (DMEM-F12) used either as delivered or enriched in NO2- by NaNO2 addition. We have used three types of titania with average particle sizes between 10 and 30 nm: Degussa P25 and two other samples (undoped and Fe3+-doped anatase TiO2) synthesised by a hydrothermal route in our laboratory. The structural, morphological, optical and physicochemical characteristics of the used materials have been studied by X-ray diffraction, transmission electron microscopy (EDX), Mossbauer spectroscopy, Brunauer-Emmett-Teller nitrogen adsorption, UV-Vis reflectance spectroscopy, dynamic light scattering and diffuse reflectance infrared Fourier transform spectroscopy. The opacity and sedimentation behaviour of the studied TiO2 suspensions have been investigated by photometric attenuance measurements at 540 nm. To account for the photocatalytic properties of titania in a biologically relevant context, multiple Griess tests have been performed under controlled exposure to laboratory natural daylight illumination. The results show significant variations of light attenuance (associated with NO2- concentrations in the Griess test) depending on the opacity, sedimentation behaviour, NO2- adsorption and photocatalytic properties of the tested TiO2 nanomaterials. These findings identify material characteristics recommended to be considered when analysing the results of Griess tests performed in biological studies involving TiO2 nanoparticles.

The influence of Au nanoparticles dimension on the photocatalytic performances of the TiO2 aerogels-Au composites was evaluated. Structural and morphological peculiarities of the TiO2 aerogel, unloaded and loaded with 5 and 22 nm Au nanoparticles, were studied by transmission electron microscopy technique, X-ray diffraction and N-2-sorption measurements. UV-Vis diffuse reflectance measurements were performed to determine the band gap energies. The photocatalytic activity was evaluated by monitoring the salicylic acid photodegradation. It was found that the Au nanoparticles promote the anatase phase crystallization and produce the decrease of the specific surface area and band gap energy values. The porous composite with the smallest Au nanoparticles dimension exhibits the best photocatalytic performances.

Fe(3)O(4) nanoparticles were synthesized by a wet chemical method using Fe(III)/Fe(II) - hydrazine dihydrochloride systems. The structure, morphology, and magnetic properties of magnetite were examined by X-ray powder diffraction (XRD), infrared spectroscopy (IR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Mossbauer spectroscopy and superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID). Almost all the particles exhibit superparamagnetic like properties at room temperature. This behavior can be correlated with the size of the particles which ranged between 20-70 nm.